Infection patterns of 'Candidatus Liberibacter europaeus' in Cacopsylla oluanpiensis, a psyllid pest of Pittosporum pentandrum.

'Candidatus Liberibacter' is a genus of plant-associated bacteria that can be transmitted by insects of the superfamily Psylloidea. Since many members of this genus are putative causal agents of plant diseases, it is crucial in studying their interactions with the psyllid vectors. However, previous studies have mainly focused on few species associated with diseases of economic significance, and this may potentially hinder the development of a more comprehensive understanding of the ecology of 'Ca. Liberibacter'. The present study showed that an endemic psyllid species in Taiwan, Cacopsylla oluanpiensis, is infected with a species of 'Ca. Liberibacter'. The bacterium was present in geographically distant populations of the psyllid and was identified as 'Ca. Liberibacter europaeus' (CLeu), a species which generally does not induce plant symptoms. Analysis of CLeu infection densities in male and female C. oluanpiensis with different abdominal colors using quantitative polymerase chain reaction revealed that CLeu infection was not significantly associated with psyllid gender and body color. Instead, CLeu infection had a negative effect on the body sizes of both male and female psyllids, which is influenced by bacterial titer. Investigation on CLeu's distribution patterns in C. oluanpiensis's host plant Pittosporum pentandrum indicated that CLeu does not behave as a plant pathogen. Also, results showed that nymph-infested twigs had a greater chance of carrying high loads of CLeu, suggesting that ovipositing females and the nymphs are the main source of the bacterium in the plants. This study is not only the first to formally report the presence of CLeu in C. oluanpiensis and plants in the family Pittosporaceae, but also represents the first record of the bacterium in Taiwan. Overall, the findings in this work broaden the understanding of associations between psyllids and 'Ca. Liberibacter' in the field.

Infection Patterns of a Liberibacter Associated with Macrohomotoma gladiata, a Psyllid Feeding on Ficus microcarpa.

Almost all known Liberibacters can be transmitted by psyllids. This suggests that there is a coevolutionary relationship between these two groups of organisms. However, detailed investigation of Liberibacters and psyllids have often focused on only a few species, thus potentially limiting knowledge on Liberibacter-psyllid associations. This study investigated the infection patterns of a Liberibacter inhabiting Macrohomotoma gladiata, a psyllid species feeding on Ficus microcarpa. Comparison of the Liberibacter's near-full-length 16S rDNA sequence with those of other known Liberibacters revealed that it is closely related to Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. A survey of different M. gladiata populations in Taiwan using conventional and quantitative PCR (qPCR) indicated that the Liberibacter could be detected with variable frequencies in all the tested populations; the proportions of individuals carrying large Liberibacter populations also differed depending on the population. Additional analysis of a larger set of samples collected from one specific population revealed that the psyllid's gender and abdominal color were associated with Liberibacter infection density. Significantly greater proportions of individuals with a blue/green abdomen carried high Liberibacter titers. Analysis of the psyllids' body lengths revealed that body size was not affected by Liberibacter infection status and that females, particularly those with an orange abdomen, tended to be larger. The infection patterns of Liberibacter in nymph-infested and nymph-free twigs of F. microcarpa were also determined, and Liberibacter distribution was found to be associated with the presence of nymphs. These findings broaden the understanding of Liberibacter ecology in general and have implications for managing Liberibacter-associated diseases. IMPORTANCE Despite the ever-increasing interest in Liberibacter-psyllid interactions, most of the current knowledge on the subject has been established from studies focusing on species associated with crop diseases. To obtain a more holistic understanding of Liberibacter ecology, we investigated the infection patterns of a Liberibacter recently detected in Macrohomotoma gladiata, a psyllid pest of Ficus microcarpa. We showed that a Liberibacter closely related to Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus is widely distributed across M. gladiata populations in Taiwan. The study also identified factors associated with the Liberibacter infection patterns, both in M. gladiata and in F. microcarpa. The effects of Liberibacter infection status on psyllid body sizes were also examined. Some of the patterns detected in this work were similar those found in well-known Liberibacters, while some were the opposite. The findings in this work broaden our understanding of Liberibacter ecology in general and may facilitate development of strategies for managing plant diseases.

Biogeography and Ecological Differentiation of Pseudasphondylia gall midges (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Distributed in Taiwan and Japan, with Description of a New Species P. kiwiphila sp. nov. and the Southernmost Record of P. elaeocarpi.

Pseudasphondylia species (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) are known to induce fruit galls on Actinidia rufa (Siebold & Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq. and finger-like leaf galls on Elaeocarpus sylvestris (Lour.) Poir. in Taiwan, but their taxonomic positions remain undetermined. Based on gall morphology and host plants, they were supposed to be the same or allied species of known Japanese congeners, i.e., P. matatabi Yuasa & Kumazawa inducing flower-bud galls on Actinidia polygama (Sieb. et Zucc.) Maxim and P. elaeocarpi Tokuda & Yukawa inducing finger-like leaf galls on E. sylvestris. Species identifications of these Taiwanese species provide us an opportunity to study biogeographical aspects and transition of ecological features in these Pseudasphondylia species distributed in East Asian Arc. Morphological comparisons and species delimitation by molecular analysis indicated that the cecidomyiid on the fruit of A. rufa is distinct from P. matatabi and thus it is described as a species new to science, P. kiwiphila sp. nov. Lin, Tokuda, & Yang. The leaf galler on E. sylvestris was identical to P. elaeocarpi, whose southernmost distribution range extended to Taiwan, a new record of its distribution. COI-based phylogenetic tree (Bayesian inference and IQ tree) of Pseudasphondylia suggested that leaf galling habitat and univoltine life history are ancestral, whereas fruit or flower-bud galling and multivoltine life history are derived. In addition, the monophyletic Actinidia-associated species lineage is sistered to the clade including the remaining Japanese fruit and flower-bud gallers, suggesting that Pseudasphondylia has colonized on the host genus Actinidia once and later speciated on different plant species of the host genus. As a biogeographical aspect of P. elaeocarpi, 2.7% of the COI distance between Japanese and Taiwanese individuals indicates that they have diverged around 1.2 mya, which corresponds to the last but second separation of Taiwan and Japan in the Pleistocene. As for Actinidia-associated Pseudasphondylia species, the two valid species are allopatric and have distinct areas of origin, suggesting they may have speciated allopatrically. Nevertheless, there is still the possibility of ecological speciation due to the following reasons: (1) Host species (and varieties) and unidentified congener of Actinidia-associated Pseudasphondylia are occurring China, revealing potential occurrence of these gall midges. (2) The divergence time (2.2-2.9 mya) of the two known species corresponds to the late Pliocene to Pleistocene, when China, Taiwan, and Japan were part of the East Asian continent. During this period, their host species were sympatric in southeast China. (3) The host of two named Actinidia-associated Pseudasphondylia species each belong to different plant groups with distinct fruit features. These presume that the speciation might have been caused via sympatric host shift.

A catalogue, revision, and regional perspective of Eastern Palaearctic and Oriental oak gall wasps and their inquilines (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Cynipini, Synergini, Ceroptresini).

Recent years have seen rapid advances in the study of Fagaceae-associated gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) of the Eastern Palaearctic and the Oriental (EPO) regions, for both the gall inducing Cynipini (commonly termed oak gall wasps though many species gall non-oak Fagaceae) and the predominantly inquiline tribes Synergini and Ceroptresini. This process has propagated some taxonomic errors and involves many taxa whose taxonomic status is uncertain. To provide a stable foundation for further advance, here we review the taxonomic status of the 212 species (133 oak gall wasps and 79 oak cynipid inquilines) that have been described or recorded in these regions. Of this total, we treat 171 as valid species names (103 oak gall wasps and 68 oak cynipid inquilines) in 20 genera; 22 as synonym names, 13 as incertae sedis, three as nomen dubium, and three as species inquirenda. Callirhytis kunugicola Shinji, 1944 is proposed as syn. nov. of C. kunugicola Shinji, 1943, as Shinji described the same species twice. For all valid species names, we provide taxonomic references, synonyms, and geographical distributions. We summarize what is known of host plant associations and gall locations for gall inducers, and host associations for inquilines. We discuss geographic patterns in the known richness of currently valid species for both groups of organisms, and place this in the context of the biogeography of available Fagaceae host plants. We provide a brief historical review of the study of oak gall wasps and their inquilines in the EPO regions.

Biotremology: Vibrational communication of Psylloidea.

Psyllids perform duetting via vibrational signals between genders that are important in pre-copulation species specific recognition. To date, vibrational behavior has been recorded in more than 100 species of psyllid, which is still only a small fraction of the ∼4000 described species. In this overview, we categorize the duet behavior into (1) reciprocal duets, (2) engaged duets, (3) three-way duets and (4) loose duets. In species with notable signal differences between genders, typically the male possesses a longer, more complex signal, which is emitted at a higher frequency compared to those of the females. Vibrational signals exhibit species specific characteristics that are taxonomically informative in some cases. Despite only a limited number of vibrational communication studies incorporating phylogenetic analyses, these reveal that signals can have reliable systematic information, but also that evolutionary and/or environmental factors may influence signal characteristics in ways that confound phylogenetic signal. Other possible strategies employed in mate finding in psyllids are chemical and visual signals. The most likely mechanism of vibrational signal production in psyllids involves stridulation between forewing and thorax. In some applied approaches, methods exploiting vibrational signals to disrupt mating may be effective to control psyllid pests in the field.

Invasive and Quarantine Risks of Cacopsylla chinensis (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) in East Asia: Hybridization or Gene Flow Between Differentiated Lineages.

Pear psyllids are major pests and the causal agents of pear decline disease in orchards. In the past two decades, their outbreaks have raised issues pertaining to invasions and taxonomic identification of the dimorphic Cacopsylla chinensis (Yang and Li) in East Asia. The present study elucidated, as an aid to quarantine management, the invasive origins, differentiation history, and putative gene flow and hybridization between C. chinensis and its sibling species Cacopsylla jukyungi (Kwon). Analyses revealed that the ancestors of C. jukyungi might have diverged from C. chinensis approximately 3.5 million yr ago (Mya) and that differentiation between C. chinensis lineages I and II probably occurred 1.5 Mya. The known overlapping distribution of C. chinensis and C. jukyungi in northeastern China and the two C. chinensis lineages in the Bohai Rim region and Taiwan could be attributed to recent population expansion after the Last Glacial Maximum and/or anthropogenic activities. Analyses of the nuclear gene demonstrated that frequent gene flow between the two C. chinensis lineages and the paraphyletic relationship between C. chinensis and C. jukyungi might be caused by incomplete lineage sorting or hybridization events. On the basis of the current distribution, it is evident that C. jukyungi is not present in middle-southern China, whereas C. chinensis is not distributed in Japan and Korea. Preventing new invasions of Cacopsylla psyllids among geographic regions through the transportation of pear scions is thus pivotal in East Asia, particularly for the possible genetic exchanges among differentiated lineages after secondary invasion events.

Trioza turouguei sp. nov. (Hemiptera, Psylloidea, Triozidae), a new psyllid species from Taiwan inducing pea-shaped stem galls on Cinnamomum osmophloeum (Lauraceae), with notes on its galling biology.

Trioza turouguei sp. nov., a new species of jumping plant lice (Hemiptera, Triozidae) from Taiwan, is described and illustrated based on adults and immatures. The latter induce pea-shaped galls on the stems of Cinnamomum osmophloeum Kaneh. (Lauraceae). The gall phenology of the new species is described. A list of species of Triozidae associated with Cinnamomum in the Old World is provided. The following nomenclatorial acts are proposed: Trioza inflata Li, 1992 = Trioza xiangicamphorae Li, 1992, syn. nov.; Siphonaleyrodes formosanus Takahashi, 1932, stat. rev., is removed from synonymy with Trioza cinnamomi (Boselli, 1931).

Proteomic analysis of "Oriental Beauty" oolong tea leaves with different degrees of leafhopper infestation.

RATIONALE: Oriental Beauty, a type of oolong tea native to Taiwan, is highly prized by connoisseurs for its unique fruity aroma and sweet taste. Leaves of Oriental Beauty vary in appearance, aroma, and taste, depending on the degree of tea green leafhopper (Jacobiasca formosana) infestation. In this study, the aim is to investigate the differential expression of proteins in leaves with low, medium, and high degrees of leafhopper infestation. METHODS: Proteomic techniques 2DE (two-dimensional electrophoresis) and nanoscale liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) were used to investigate the differential expression of proteins in tea leaves with different degrees of leafhopper infestation. RESULTS: A total of 89 proteins were found to exhibit significant differences in expression. In a gene ontology analysis, most of these proteins participated in biosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, transport, responses to stress, and amino acid metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicated that the unique aroma and taste of the leaves might be influenced by their protein expression profiles, as well as related factors such as defensive responses to tea green leafhopper saliva.

Anomoneura taiwanica sp. nov. (Hemiptera, Psylloidea, Psyllidae), a new jumping plant-louse species from Taiwan associated with Morus australis (Moraceae).

Anomoneura taiwanica sp. nov. (Hemiptera, Psylloidea, Psyllidae, Psyllinae) is described based on samples from Taiwan that were previously misidentified as A. mori Schwarz, 1896. Morphological and genetic differences between the two species, as well as their distribution, are detailed and discussed. Comments on the pest status of Anomoneura spp. in East Asia are also provided.

Molecular Phylogeny Revealing the Single Origin of Cinnamomum-associated Bruggmanniella (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Asia, with Descriptions of Three New and One Newly Recorded Species from Taiwan.

Cecidomyiid genus Bruggmanniella contains four Lauraceae-associated species in Asia and 13 species associated with various plant families in Latin American. In this article, three new species, B. sanlianensis sp. nov., B. turoguei sp. nov. and B. shianguei sp. nov., and one newly recorded species, B. cinnamomi, are reported on Cinnamomum plant species (Lauraceae) from Taiwan. Molecular phylogenetic analysis was conducted for the four Cinnamomum-associated Bruggmanniella, together with B. brevipes Lin, Yang and Tokuda, B. actinodaphnes Tokuda and Yukawa, three Pseudasphondylia and two Daphnephila species. The Asian Bruggmanniella and the Cinnamomum-associated Bruggmanniella were monophyletic on the Neighbor-joining, Maximum-likelihood, and Bayesian inference trees. In addition, Cinnamomum-associated Bruggmanniella species had the closest sistership with B. brevipes, which are associated with the plant genus Neolitsea (Lauraceae). These results suggest that B. brevipes, B. actinodaphnes and B. cinnamomi are members of genus Bruggmanniella, a finding that is not consistent with another recent morphology-based phylogenetic study. Among the Cinnamomum-associated lineages, the leaf galler B. sanlianensis sp. nov. is a sister to the clade of stem gallers, suggesting that host organ shift from leaf to stem occurred prior to host shift. Additionally, the paraphyly of the Taiwanese stem galler with respect to Japanese B. cinnamomi suggests that the distributional range of B. cinnamomi be expanded from Taiwan to Japan.

Vibrational communication between a myrmecophilous butterfly Spindasis lohita (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) and its host ant Crematogaster rogenhoferi (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Ants are a dominant insect group in terrestrial ecosystems and many myrmecophilous species evolve to associate with ants to gain benefits. One iconic example is myrmecophilous butterflies that often produce ant-mimicking vibrational calls to modulate ant behaviors. Despite its popularity, empirical exploration of how butterflies utilize vibrational signals to communicate with ants is scarce. In this study, we reported that the myrmecophilous butterfly Spindasis lohita produce three types of larval calls and one type of pupal call, while its tending ant, Crematogaster rogenhoferi emit a single type of call. The results of discriminant analysis revealed that calls of the two species are quantitatively similar in their signal attributes; the potential role of butterfly calls are further confirmed by the playback experiments in which certain ant behaviors including antennation, aggregation, and guarding were induced when one of the butterfly calls was played to C. rogenhoferi workers. The findings in the current study represent the very first evidence on vibrational communication between Spindasis and Crematogaster and also imply that S. lohita may have been benefited from ant attendance due to the ability to produce similar calls of the ant C. rogenhoferi.

Vibrational behavior of psyllids (Hemiptera: Psylloidea): Functional morphology and mechanisms.

Vibrational behavior of psyllids was first documented more than six decades ago. Over the years, workers have postulated as to what the exact signal producing mechanisms of psyllids might be but the exact mechanism has remained elusive. The aim of this study is to determine the specific signal producing structures and mechanisms of the psyllids. Here we examine six hypotheses of signal producing mechanisms from both previous and current studies that include: wingbeat, wing-wing friction, wing-thorax friction, wing-leg friction, leg-abdomen friction, and axillary sclerite-thorax friction. Through selective removal of possible signal producing structures and measuring wing beat frequency with high speed videos, six hypotheses were tested. Extensive experiments were implemented on the species Macrohomotoma gladiata Kuwayama, while other species belonging to different families, i.e., Trioza sozanica (Boselli), Mesohomotoma camphorae Kuwayama, Cacopsylla oluanpiensis (Yang), and Cacopsylla tobirae (Miyatake) were also examined to determine the potential prevalence of each signal producing mechanism within the Psylloidea. Further, scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to examine possible rubbing structures. The result of high speed video recordings showed that wingbeat frequency did not match the dominant frequency of vibrational signals, resulting in the rejection of wingbeat hypothesis. As for the selective removal experiments, the axillary sclerite-thorax friction hypothesis is accepted and wing-thorax friction hypothesis is supported partially, while others are rejected. The SEM showed that the secondary axillary sclerite of the forewing bears many protuberances that would be suitable for stridulation. In conclusion, the signal producing mechanism of psyllids may involve two sets of morphological structures. The first is stridulation between the axillary sclerite of the forewing and the mesothorax. The second is stridulation between the axillary cord and anal area of the forewing.

A taxonomic review of the pericaline ground-beetles in Taiwan, with descriptions of new species (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Lebiini).

A taxonomic review of the known Taiwanese taxa of the pericaline Lebiini, this paper includes a key to the genera, keys to species, descriptions, and redescriptions of all species, illustrations, geographic range maps, re-rankings, and new synonymies. In total 34 species are treated, nine of which are described as new. A new genus and new species are as follows: Bellavalentis gen. n., (type species Dolichoctiskuzugamii Shibata, 1967); Amphimenesabsensacidus sp. n.; Amphimenesbeichatiensis sp. n.; Amphimenescarinacaulis sp. n.; Catascopus(s. str.)asahartisp. n.; Catascopus(s. str.)viridiorchissp. n.; Coptodera (Coptoderina) occultasp. n.; Dolichoctisbadiadorsis sp. n.; Dolichoctisdilatata sp. n.; Moctherusobscurabasis sp. n. After close examination of the type material of several species, we were able to determine that Coptoderinachaudoirianguilipennis (Nakane and Okhura) is a junior synonym of Coptodera (Coptoderina) chaudoiri Andrewes, syn. n. and Coptoderanobilis Jedlicka is also a junior synonym of C.chaudoiri, syn. n. Dolichoctisstriatusformosanus Habu is a junior synonym of Dolichoctisrotundata (Schmidt-Goebel), syn. n.Dolichoctis (Mochtherus) uenoi Habu is a junior synonym of Mochtherusluctuosus Putzeys, syn. n. Pericalusformosanus Dupuis was recently ranked as a subspecies of Pericalusornatusformosanus Dupuis. After consideration of the several consistent taxonomic characteristics and also considering its allopatric distribution with all other species of Pericalus, we believe Pericalusformosanus Dupuis to be a valid species, stat. resurr. The monobasic genus Pseudomenarus (type species Pseudomenarusflavomaculatus Shibata, 1964) is established as conspecific with members of the genus Formosiella Jedlicka, 1951, comb. n. Species previously recorded from Taiwan that are not present here include: Amphimenespiceolus Bates; Catascopusaequatus Dejean; Catascopusfacialis (Wiedemann) Coptoderainterrupta Schmidt-Goebel Coptoderaflexuosa Schmidt-Goebel and Peripristusater (Laporte). The pericaline taxa of Taiwan are arranged in 14 genera, five subgenera, and 34 currently known species. Notes on collecting circumstances, habits, and habitat are included when known.

A new genus record and species of Dromoceryx Schmidt-Goebel, 1846 (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Lebiini) from Taiwan, with a revised key to species.

We describe a new genus record for Taiwan and a new species of the genus Dromoceryx Schmidt-Goebel, 1846. We add to the known fauna and distribution of the genus with a description, habitus, genitalic images, as well as a geographic range map for Dromoceryxnigrofovealis sp. n. A revised key to all species of the genus is included.

Eight new species of Cycloneuroterus Melika & Tang gallwasps from Taiwan and mainland China (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Cynipini).

Eight new species of cynipid gallwasps, Cycloneuroterus abei Melika & Tang, C. ergei Tang & Melika, C. gilvus Melika & Tang, C. globosus Melika & Tang, C. jianwui Tang & Melika, C. lohsei Melika & Tang, C. tumiclavus Tang & Melika, C. uraianus Tang & Melika, from Taiwan and mainland China are described. Descriptions, diagnoses, biology, and host associations for the new species and a key to all Cycloneuroterus species are given. All taxa are supported by morphological and molecular data. Seven newly described species induce galls on Quercus subgenus Cyclobalanopsis, while one, C. uraianus, induces galls on Castanopsis. This is the first Cycloneuroterus species known to associate with Castanopsis.

A new species of alpine Apenetretus Kurnakov from Taiwan: evidences from DNA barcodes and morphological characteristics (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Patrobini).

There are three isolated mountain ranges in Taiwan including Hsueshan Range, Central Mountain Range, and Yushan Range. The rise of these mountains has resulted in the isolation of some species and caused allopatric distribution resulting in divergence and speciation events of high mountain carabids, especially the flightless carabids such as Epaphiopsis, Apenetretus, and partial Nebria. Genus Apenetretus Kurnakov (1960) is typically distributed in high mountain areas of Taiwan. Three of the currently known Apenetretus species have been described from different mountain ranges. These species include Apenetretus yushanensis Habu, Apenetretus nanhutanus Habu, and Apenetretus smetanai Zamotajlov and Sciaky. In this study, a new species is described from Hsueshan, a mountain separated from the ranges of the previous known species, Apenetretus hsueshanensis sp. n. A key to the Taiwanese Apenetretus is included. A reconstructed phylogeny of the Taiwanese Apenetretus is introduced with the use of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. Molecular data and geographical distribution of Apenetretus support the morphological characteristics observed among those mountain-isolated species and confirms the new species as being distinctly different. Moreover, lineage calibration suggests that the southern Apenetretus yushanensis is the most distant one compared to the other three northern Apenetretus at ca. 1.81 million years ago (mya), while the divergence time of Apenetretus hsueshanensis to its sister group was dated to 0.94 mya.

A comparative phylogeographic study reveals discordant evolutionary histories of alpine ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae).

Taiwan, an island with three major mountain ranges, provides an ideal topography to study mountain-island effect on organisms that would be diversified in the isolation areas. Glaciations, however, might drive these organisms to lower elevations, causing gene flow among previously isolated populations. Two hypotheses have been proposed to depict the possible refugia for alpine organisms during glaciations. Nunatak hypothesis suggests that alpine species might have stayed in situ in high mountain areas during glaciations. Massif de refuge, on the other hand, proposes that alpine species might have migrated to lower ice-free areas. By sampling five sympatric carabid species of Nebria and Leistus, and using two mitochondrial genes and two nuclear genes, we evaluated the mountain-island effect on alpine carabids and tested the two proposed hypotheses with comparative phylogeographic method. Results from the phylogenetic relationships, network analysis, lineage calibration, and genetic structure indicate that the deep divergence among populations in all L. smetanai, N. formosana, and N. niitakana was subjected to long-term isolation, a phenomenon in agreement with the nunatak hypothesis. However, genetic admixture among populations of N. uenoiana and some populations of L. nokoensis complex suggests that gene flow occurred during glaciations, as a massif de refuge depicts. The speciation event in N. niitakana is estimated to have occurred before 1.89 million years ago (Mya), while differentiation among isolated populations in N. niitakana, N. formosana, L. smetanai, and L. nokoensis complex might have taken place during 0.65-1.65 Mya. While each of the alpine carabids arriving in Taiwan during different glaciation events acquired its evolutionary history, all of them had confronted the existing mountain ranges.

Complete mitochondrial genome of Aeolesthes oenochrous (Fairmaire) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae): an endangered and colorful longhorn beetle.

Aeolesthes oenochrous (Fairmaire), a large and colorful longhorn beetle, is an endangered species in Taiwan. Its complete mitogenome, 15,747 bp, shows a typical coleopteran organization, containing 13 protein coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and one A + T rich region. Two protein coding genes, i.e. COI and ND1, have the atypical start codon of AAT and TTG, respectively. The third nucleotide position of codons shows extremely low guanine content. In the A + T rich region, there were two poly-T stretches with 14 and 13 thymine each. These two poly-T stretches were clarified by the cloning method.

New species of cynipid inquilines of the genus Saphonecrus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Synergini) from the Eastern Palaearctic, with a re-appraisal of known species world-wide.

Fifteen new species of cynipid inquilines, Saphonecrus chinensis Tang & Schwéger, S. gilvus Melika & Schwéger, S. globosus Schwéger & Tang, S. leleyi Melika & Schwéger, S. lithocarpii Schwéger & Melika, S. longinuxi Schwéger & Melika, S. morii Schwéger & Tang, S. nantoui Tang, Schwéger & Melika, S. nichollsi Schwéger & Melika, S. pachylomai Schwéger, Tang & Melika, S. robustus Schwéger & Melika, S. saliciniai Melika, Tang & Schwéger, S. shanzhukui Melika & Tang, S. symbioticus Melika & Schwéger, and S. taitungi Schwéger, Tang & Melika, from the Eastern Palaearctic are described. Descriptions, diagnoses, biology, and host associations for the new species, and a key to Palaearctic Saphonecrus species are given. All new taxa form distinct units as demonstrated by the molecular phylogenetic analyses of Palaearctic Saphonecrus species. The status of some earlier described Saphonecrus species is discussed also. The Synergini genus Lithonecrus Nieves-Aldrey & Butterill, 2014 is synonymized with Lithosaphonecrus Tang, Melika & Bozsó, 2013. Three Saphonecrus species are transferred to Synergus: Synergus brevis (Weld) comb. nova, Synergus hupingshanensis (Liu, Yang & Zhu) comb. nova, and Synergus yukawai (Wachi, Ide & Abe) comb. nova. Synophrus vietnamensis Abe, Ide, Konishi & Ueno is transferred to Lithosaphonecrus: Lithosaphonecrus vietnamensis Abe, Ide, Konishi & Ueno), comb. nova. The current number of valid Saphonecrus species worldwide is 36.

Is a Gall an Extended Phenotype of the Inducing Insect? A Comparative Study of Selected Morphological and Physiological Traits of Leaf and Stem Galls on Machilus thunbergii (Lauraceae) Induced by Five Species of Daphnephila (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Northeastern Taiwan.

Mature galls induced by Daphnephila truncicola, D. taiwanensis, D. sueyenae, D. stenocalia, and D. ornithocephala on Machilus thunbergii in northern Taiwan were examined to verify the dictum that the morphology of galls is an expression of the extended phenotype of the respective gall-inducing insect. Based on their length-width ratio, the materials were grouped into either fleshy (those induced by D. taiwanensis and D. sueyenae) or slim galls (those induced by D. truncicola, D. stenocalia, and D. ornithocephala). Stem galls induced by D. truncicola showed an energy level of 0.0178 kJ/g. Among leaf galls, the greatest energy level was in the one induced by D. stenocalia (0.0193 kJ/g), followed by D. sueyenae (0.0192 kJ/g), D. taiwanensis (0.0189 kJ/g), and D. ornithocephala (0.0160 kJ/g). The numbers of reserve and nutritive cell layers in galls were greater in the stem galls induced by D. truncicola, similar to those in the fleshy leaf galls, than in the slim leaf galls. Based on the fungal taxa isolated from the larval chambers and considering the similarities and divergences among gall characteristics, the galls induced by D. truncicola and D. taiwanensis clustered into one, whereas those of D. sueyenae aligned with the 'D. stenocalia-D. ornithocephala' cluster. The present study verified that shapes, structure, nutritive tissues, energy levels, and multiple coexisting fungal taxa within galls reinforce that they are extended phenotypes of the respective gall-inducing Daphnephila species and they represent adaptive evolution of Daphnephila on M. thunbergii.